Personality and Pain: Which Came First?

James N. Weisberg, PhD

This article is adapted from a chapter in a soon to be published text:
Weisberg, J.N., Paul, C. & Twyner, C. Personality and Personality Disorders in Chronic Pain.  In Incayawar, M., Clark, M. & Maldonado-Bouchard, S. (Eds.). Overlapping Pain and Psychiatric Syndromes-Global Perspectives. New York, NY: Oxford University Press

Chronic pain is a significant health care issue at epidemic proportions in the United States1 and there is a high incidence of both clinical psychiatric disorders2,3 and personality disorders (PD) in the chronic pain population.4 This article will briefly summarize some of the important points pertaining to the prevalence and interplay between personality disorders and chronic pain.

Personality and Pain

The relationship between personality and pain can easily be traced to ancient Greece. More recently, in the late 19th century psychodynamic theorists discussed the connection between emotional factors and the experience of chronic pain.5 George Engel maintained that, while physical pain may result from underlying pathophysiology, the interpretation of pain is a psychological phenomenon and also noted that certain diagnoses, including Depression, Hysteria and Hypochondriasis were relatively common in people experiencing chronic pain.6 In an attempt to further characterize personality characteristics, the use of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)7 and its successors (MMPI-2, MMPI-2-RF) led to a plethora of research seeking to use psychometric tests quantify these early theorists, help predict treatment outcome from multidisciplinary treatment8, spine surgery9, spinal cord  stimulators10as well as  and pain-related disability11.  However, despite the hundreds of studies using the MMPI and its successors, there continues to be controversy regarding the applicability and appropriateness of in the chronic pain population.12,13

A number of other psychological inventories have been used in an attempt to describe and characterize individuals with chronic pain and to predict treatment outcomes. Some, but not all of these measures include the NEO Personality Inventory (Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness Personality Inventory-NEO-PI) and its revisions,14-16 the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory and subsequent revisions (MCMI; MCMI-IV)17,18 and the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI).19

While psychological inventories have investigated different personality characteristics as they relate to pain, relatively few studies have investigated personality disorders in chronic pain. 

Personality Disorders and Chronic Pain

Whereas personality refers to the constellation of non-pathological characteristics in an individual’s patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior the DSM defines a personality disorder as “an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.”20 Thus, the essential difference between a trait and disorder is the degree of distress and disruption caused.

Personality and personality disorders are likely the combination of biological, developmental, and environmental factors that become impacted by state-dependent variables such as mood and anxiety. The Diathesis-Stress model purports that individuals have underlying genetic vulnerabilities and possibly early life experiences that interact with stressors the individual encounters later in life.21  Depending on the nature of the stressors and the individual’s ability to cope with such stressors, the underlying vulnerability may or may not become expressed as a disease process. The diathesis-stress model was first applied to explain schizophrenia21 and depression.22  It has also been applied to the development of chronic back pain23 and the development of depression in chronic pain patients.2 Similarly, this model has been proposed to apply to personality disorders in chronic pain patients.24 Thus, combined with underlying traits and situational stressors brought on by chronic pain, an individual’s underlying personality traits and characteristics may become magnified to the extent the individual meets criteria for a personality disorder.

Epidemiology of Personality Disorders:

In its most recent edition, the American Psychiatric Association cites data from a national epidemiologic survey suggesting approximately 15% of US adults meet criteria for at least one personality disorder.25 A large epidemiological study found prevalence estimates for the different clusters suggest 5.7% for disorders in Cluster A (Paranoid, Schizotypal and Schizoid Personality Disorder), 1.5% for disorders in Cluster B (Histrionic, Narcissistic and Borderline Personality disorders),  6.0% for disorders in Cluster C (Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders), and 9.1% for any personality disorder, indicating frequent co-occurrence of disorders from different clusters.26

To date, approximately 15 studies have investigated the prevalence of personality disorders in chronic pain.  Some of the more seminal studies are highlighted here.  The first published study using a semi-structured interview to diagnose DSM-III personality disorders in chronic pain found 37% of their sample met criteria for at least one personality disorder with the most common diagnoses being histrionic PD (14%), dependent PD (12%) and borderline PD  (7%).27  Fishbain et al,28 using a semi-structured interview to diagnosis both DSM-III axis I and Axis II disorders, found 59% of their chronic pain sample met criteria for a personality disorder with most common diagnoses being dependent PD (17%), Passive-Aggressive PD (15%) and histrionic PD (12%).   Weisberg et al29 used a combination of clinical interview, treatment notes and both patient and family self-report measures to assess personality disorders in 55 chronic pain patients who were evaluated and treated at a comprehensive outpatient pain management program. They found that 31% met criteria for at least one PD and an additional 27% met criteria for PD-NOS which is used when an individual meets incomplete criteria for two or more personality disorders.  Similar to other studies, the most common diagnoses were borderline PD (13%) and dependent PD (11%).  These researchers suggest that obtaining longitudinal information from both the patient and an individual with a longstanding relationship with the patient might provide a more thorough assessment of the impact of state factors such as mood, anxiety, and stress on the presentation of personality.29 More recently, Conrad et al30 found that 41% of their chronic pain sample met criteria for a personality disorder diagnoses compared to 7% of their control group.  Most common were Borderline PD (11%) and paranoid PD (12%). The authors found clinical disorders, such as depression at a equally high rate, lending more credence to the importance of assessing personality in context of state factors.

In summary, the relatively few studies that have investigated personality disorders in various samples of patiens with  chronic pain have found prevalence rates from 31% to over 80%. However, as has been noted by previous researchers, due to a variety of factors including state-dependent variables, stressors unique to chronic pain, genetic and developmental influences and other known and unknown factors, significant caution must be used when making a personality disorder diagnosis in the individuals with chronic pain.  In addition, knowing premorbid functioning is crucial in understanding the multifactorial nature of the observed behavior.  Nontheless, the presence of a personality disorder increases the liklihood of co-morbid conditions, such as substance misuse and abuse and makes treatment of chronic pain that much more challenging to the pain clinician.

The Nexus of Personality Disorders in Chronic Pain and Substance Use Disorders:

There has also been a paucity of research on the interaction between personality disorders and substance use disorders in chronic pain.  One study investigated psychological comorbidities, including personality disorders, in chronic pain sufferers presenting to either a university emergency department or an urgent care clinic requesting opioids.31 Pertinent results demonstrated 18% likely had a personality disorder diagnosis and found that personality disorder was significantly related to opioid abuse.31 A recent study found the incidence of personality disorders to be 52% in those with co-occurring chronic pain and substance use disorders.32 The most common personality disorder was antisocial PD (22%) followed by avoidant PD (19%) and paranoid PD (16%). Although there is little literature on this topic, both of these studies suggest that personality disorders may be a moderating variable in the incidence of substance use disorders in persons with chronic pain.                                                                                                                                         

Treatment of Personality Disorders in Chronic Pain

While working with people living with either chronic pain or personality disorders can prove to be daunting to the clinician separately, working with those with the co-morbid diagnoses of both personality disorders and chronic pain can pose unique challenges and opportunities in regard to treatment. Although maladaptive behaviors are, by definition, problematic in a variety of settings, legitimate concerns may be disregarded as secondary to the manifestations of personality disorders or simply attributed to being “difficult.”

The need for the pain clinician to screen for personality disorders is rooted in the understanding that the manifestations of a personality disorder in a person living with chronic pain can be exacerbated or unmasked by the individual’s pain condition according to the diathesis-stress model.24  In addition, the need for vigilance and awareness with these conditions is considerable as these patients are at higher risk for various adverse outcomes, including substance use disorders. 31 Attempting to detangle the personality disorder from the chronic pain state with the goal of treating one or the other may be difficult at best.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP) has been well documented in the literature to be one of the most effective treatments for chronic pain.33-35 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)36, has been shown to benefit patients with personality disorders that had failed in previous treatment with significant improvements in personality pathology and quality of life.37 ACT for chronic pain has also been effective at decreasing pain intensity, anxiety, and disability38 The use of CBT-CP and ACT may be a potential avenue for treatment, but research designed to investigate these interventions among people with coexisting chronic pain and personality disorders is lacking.

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), a current mainstay of treatment of borderline personality disorder, focuses on the development of coping skills with the ultimate goal of improving emotional regulation and control.39 However, as with other therapeutic modalities, there is minimal evidence for treatment for DBT in those with chronic pain and comorbid personality disorders.

Given the common elements between Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Dialectical Behavior Therapy, it stands to reason that a hybrid model combining elements of both CBT-CP with DBT might be a highly successful approach to maximizing treatment potential in patients with co-morbid chronic pain and personality disorders, especially borderline personality disorder.

Summary: 

In summary, it is important to assess patients not just for depression, anxiety and other clinical psychiatric disorders, but for personality traits and disorders in order to better understand the impact personality may have on the expression of their pain perception, medication use and coping styles.  Understanding the role personality disorders may play in the complexities of chronic pain should result in the tailoring of multimodal treatments for chronic pain that emphasize non-opioid medical management, cognitive-behavioral and physical therapies.

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